This page compares the education systems of Turkey and Estonia.
Education System Overview
| Category | Turkey | Estonia |
|---|---|---|
| System Type | Public-private mix; Governance model: Centralized, with national education policy, curricula and major regulations administered primarily through the Ministry of National Education. | Public/private mix; decentralized provision under national standards, with local governments responsible for much of municipal school provision. [Estonian Ministry] |
| Governing Body | Ministry of National Education (MEB) for school education and the Council of Higher Education (CoHE / YÖK) for higher education. | Ministry of Education and Research for national education policy; the Education and Youth Board implements education and youth policy within the ministry’s area of government. [Estonian Ministry] [Education and Youth Board] |
| Government Expenditure on Education (% of GDP) | 3.1% of GDP (2022, latest value in the World Bank indicator sourced from UNESCO UIS). [World Bank] | 5.2% (2022, latest value in the World Bank/UNESCO UIS series). [World Bank] |
Education Structure & Compulsory Schooling
| Category | Turkey | Estonia |
|---|---|---|
| Compulsory Age Range | Approximately age 6 to age 18, covering 12 years of compulsory schooling. | From age 7 to age 18. The obligation may end earlier if the learner completes secondary or vocational education. The extended learning obligation applies from the 2025/2026 academic year. [Estonian Ministry] |
| Total Compulsory Duration (Years) | 12 years | Up to 11 years from age 7 to 18; the obligation ends earlier when secondary or vocational education is completed. Basic school itself has a standard duration of 9 years. [Estonian Ministry] |
| Pre-primary Education (ECE) Access | Optional; the adjusted net enrollment rate for ages 3–5 was 49.63% in 2024/25. [MEB] | Optional before compulsory school age. In 2025, participation in preschool institutions was 90.9% at age 3, 92.9% at age 4 and 93.0% at age 5. [Statistics Estonia] |
| Primary + Secondary Education Structure (Years) | 4 + 4 + 4 (Primary + Lower Secondary + Upper Secondary). | 6 + 3 + 3: grades 1–6, grades 7–9, followed by a standard 3-year general upper-secondary programme. Basic school as a whole covers grades 1–9. [Riigi Teataja] |
| Vocational vs. General Upper Secondary Split (%) | — | — |
Academic Calendar & Instruction Time
| Category | Turkey | Estonia |
|---|---|---|
| Academic Year Start (Typical Month) | September | September; the statutory academic year begins on 1 September. [Estonian Ministry] |
| Academic Year End (Typical Month) | June | June for regular classroom teaching; the statutory academic year runs until 31 August. [Estonian Ministry] |
| Instruction Weeks per Year | 36 weeks | At least 35 weeks in general education; the final upper-secondary grade has at least 37 weeks. [Estonian Ministry] |
| Instruction Days per Year | 180 days in the 2025/26 school year. | At least 175 study days; the final upper-secondary grade has at least 185 study days. [Estonian Ministry] |
Grading System
| Category | Turkey | Estonia |
|---|---|---|
| Primary/Secondary Grading Scale | A 0–100 scale is commonly used in secondary education; primary-level assessment also incorporates competency and developmental evaluation. | 1–5 scale: 5 = very good, 4 = good, 3 = satisfactory, 2 = poor and 1 = weak. Descriptive assessment may also be used in stages I and II of basic school under school rules. [Riigi Teataja] |
| Higher Education Grading Scale | Commonly 0–100 and/or 4.0 GPA systems depending on the institution, with ECTS used for credit recognition and transfer. | A–F differentiated grading is commonly used in higher education, with A the highest positive grade and F a failing grade; pass/fail assessment may also be used. |
Language of Instruction
| Category | Turkey | Estonia |
|---|---|---|
| Primary Instruction Languages (K–12) | Turkish | Estonian is the statutory language of instruction in basic and upper-secondary schools. The transition to Estonian-language education began in 2024 and is being phased through the remaining grades. [Estonian Ministry] |
| Other Official / Minority Instruction Languages (K–12) | Greek and Armenian may be used in relevant minority schools alongside Turkish; other living languages and dialects can be offered through approved elective courses. [MEB Eurydice] | Russian remains in limited transitional use where permitted during the move to Estonian-language education. English is used by several IB schools, while the Tallinn European School provides programmes in English and French. [Estonian Ministry] |
School Provision & Access (K–12)
| Category | Turkey | Estonia |
|---|---|---|
| Public School Enrollment Share (K–12, % of Students) | 90.9% among students enrolled in public or private formal schools in 2024/25. [MEB] | Primary: 92% / Secondary: 94% (2024, based on the corresponding private-enrolment shares). [World Bank] [World Bank] |
| Public School Tuition Fee (Annual, Local Currency) | $0 tuition for public primary and secondary schooling. | $0 for public basic and general upper-secondary education. [Riigi Teataja] |
| Public Schools Nationwide Availability | Yes, with public schools operating nationwide. | Yes. Local governments must provide access to basic education for children in their territory, and municipal schools have designated service areas. [Estonian Ministry] |
| Private School Enrollment Share (K–12, % of Students) | 9.1% among students enrolled in public or private formal schools in 2024/25. [MEB] | Primary: 8% / Secondary: 6% (2024). [World Bank] [World Bank] |
| Private Schools (Geographic Concentration) | — | — |
International Schools (K–12)
| Category | Turkey | Estonia |
|---|---|---|
| Number of International Schools (Total) | 261 international schools under the official classification for 2023/24. [MEB Eurydice] | 7 schools in Tallinn and Tartu are listed by the Ministry as offering internationally recognized IB or European Baccalaureate curricula. [Estonian Ministry] |
| Number of IB World Schools | 127 schools in the current IB directory for Türkiye. [IB] | 6 schools are listed by the Ministry with IB programmes. The IB country register reports PYP at 5 schools, MYP at 4 and DP at 5. [IB] |
| Main International Programmes Offered | IB, Cambridge International, American and other international curricula, depending on school authorization and program. | International Baccalaureate (IB) and European Baccalaureate (EB). [Estonian Ministry] |
Resources & Learning Environment (K–12)
| Category | Turkey | Estonia |
|---|---|---|
| Minimum Teacher Qualification (Public Schools) | An eligible Bachelor’s-level degree for the teaching field, followed by the applicable public recruitment process. The current system includes MEB-AGS selection and preparatory training through the National Education Academy. [MEB] | For basic and upper-secondary teachers: master’s degree or equivalent, a teaching profession and the required Estonian-language proficiency; alternatively, a doctoral degree or equivalent plus the required Estonian-language proficiency. The doctoral route entered into force in January 2026. [Riigi Teataja] |
| Average Class Size (Primary) | 20.6 students (2023). [OECD] | 18.4 students (2023). [OECD] |
| Average Class Size (Lower Secondary) | 28 students in public schools / 13 students in private schools (2023). [OECD] | 19 students (2023). [OECD] |
| Average Class Size (Upper Secondary) | — | — |
System Performance & Learning Outcomes (OECD/PISA)
| Category | Turkey | Estonia |
|---|---|---|
| PISA Participation Years | 2003, 2006, 2009, 2012, 2015, 2018, 2022, 2025. [OECD] | 2006, 2009, 2012, 2015, 2018, 2022, 2025. [Estonian Ministry] |
| PISA 2018 Scores (Mathematics / Reading / Science) | 454 / 466 / 468. [OECD] | 523 / 523 / 530 [OECD] |
| PISA 2022 Scores (Mathematics / Reading / Science) | 453 / 456 / 476. [OECD] | 510 / 511 / 526 [OECD] |
| PISA 2025 Scores (Mathematics / Reading / Science) | 462 / 472 / 494. Türkiye scored close to the OECD average in mathematics and above the OECD averages in reading and science. [OECD] | 508 / 499 / 527 [OECD] |
| PISA Performance Trend 2000–2025 | Türkiye’s 2025 results were higher than in 2022 in mathematics, reading and science. OECD reports that Türkiye was among the few participating systems to improve in all three domains between 2022 and 2025, extending the positive trend recorded in previous cycles. [OECD] | Estonia first participated in 2006. Between 2022 and 2025, mathematics and science performance was about the same, while reading was lower. Mathematics and reading in 2025 were also below their 2015 and 2018 levels, while science has been broadly stable since 2015. [OECD] |
| Strongest Subject Area (PISA 2025) | Science (Score: 494), followed by reading at 472 and mathematics at 462. [OECD] | Science — 527 points. [OECD] |
Higher Education System
| Category | Turkey | Estonia |
|---|---|---|
| Number of Higher Education Institutions (Total) | 208 higher education institutions in 2025, comprising 129 state universities, 75 foundation universities and 4 foundation vocational schools. [CoHE] | 18 (2025). [Statistics Estonia] |
| Number of Universities (Research Universities) | 23 designated research universities. [CoHE] | 7: 6 public universities and 1 private university in the 2025/26 system count. [Estonian Ministry] |
| Number of Universities of Applied Sciences / Colleges | — | 11 professional higher education institutions: 7 state and 4 private. [Estonian Ministry] |
| Main Institution Types | State universities; foundation universities; foundation vocational schools; vocational schools operating within universities. | Universities and professional higher education institutions. |
| Tertiary Enrollment Share by Ownership | — | — |
| English-Taught Degree Programmes (Bachelor + Master, Total) | — | — |
| Share of Tertiary Programmes Taught in National Languages (%) | — | — |
| Share of Tertiary Programmes Taught in English (%) | — | — |
| Main Global Ranking Used | QS World University Rankings 2027. [QS] | QS World University Rankings 2027. [QS] |
| Universities in Top 100 (Selected Ranking) | 0 in the QS World University Rankings 2027. [QS] | 0 (QS World University Rankings 2027). [QS] |
| Universities in Top 500 (Selected Ranking) | 6 in the QS World University Rankings 2027. [QS] | 1 — University of Tartu, #=367 (QS 2027). [QS] |
| Universities in Top 1000 (Selected Ranking) | 11 in the QS World University Rankings 2027. [QS] | 3 — University of Tartu (#=367), Tallinn University of Technology (#=600) and Tallinn University (#901–950) in QS 2027. [QS] |
| National Accreditation / QA Agency (Higher Education) | Turkish Higher Education Quality Council (YÖKAK). [YÖKAK] | Estonian Quality Agency for Education (HAKA), an independent unit within the Education and Youth Board responsible for quality assessment in higher education and other education sectors. [HAKA] |
| International Students (Total) | 352,271 international students (January 2025). [CoHE] | 3,879 degree students from abroad in the 2025/26 academic year. [Statistics Estonia] |
| International Students Share of Total Tertiary Enrollment (%) | 4.3% in 2023 under the OECD international/foreign student measure. [OECD] | 8.2% in the 2025/26 academic year. [Estonian Ministry] |
Education Costs (Indicative)
| Category | Turkey | Estonia |
|---|---|---|
| Public University Tuition Fees – Domestic / Regional (Annual, Local Currency) | Typically $0 for eligible students enrolled in a first standard public higher-education program within state-covered conditions; contribution fees can apply in specified cases. | $0 for eligible full-time Estonian-language study; fees may apply when tuition-free conditions are not met. [Estonian Ministry] |
| Public University Tuition Fees – International / Non-EU (Annual, Local Currency) | — | — |
| Typical Tuition Fees for English-Taught Programmes (Annual, Local Currency) | — | — |
| Language School Costs (Monthly, Local Currency) | — | — |
Major Education Updates & Policy Changes
| Category | Turkey | Estonia |
|---|---|---|
| 2000–2010: Key Updates & Reforms | ||
| 2010–2020: Key Updates & Reforms | ||
| 2020–2024: Key Updates & Reforms | ||
| 2025–2026: Key Updates & Reforms |
General Overview (Narrative)
| Category | Turkey | Estonia |
|---|---|---|
| Overview | Türkiye operates a centralized education system, with school education overseen by the Ministry of National Education and higher education coordinated by the Council of Higher Education. Compulsory schooling covers approximately ages 6–18 and follows the 4+4+4 structure of primary, lower secondary and upper secondary education. In 2024/25, private schools enrolled 9.1% of students attending public or private formal schools, while public schools accounted for the remaining 90.9%. Pre-primary education is optional, with a 49.63% adjusted net enrollment rate for ages 3–5. Türkiye participated in PISA from 2003 onward and scored 462 in mathematics, 472 in reading and 494 in science in PISA 2025. OECD reported higher results than in 2022 across all three domains. Higher education included 208 institutions in 2025 and 352,271 international students as of January 2025. Recent changes include the phased rollout of the Türkiye Yüzyılı Maarif Modeli and the start of teacher-candidate preparatory training through the National Education Academy in 2026. | Estonia operates a public-led education system in which national authorities set standards while municipalities manage much of local school provision. Children normally begin basic school at age 7. Basic education lasts nine years, followed by general upper-secondary or vocational pathways, and the learning obligation now continues to age 18 unless secondary or vocational education is completed earlier. Preschool participation is high among children aged three to five. The statutory school year begins on 1 September, with general education providing at least 175 study days. Estonia is also moving basic education toward Estonian as the common language of instruction, with the transition being introduced grade by grade. In PISA 2025, Estonia scored 508 in mathematics, 499 in reading and 527 in science, making science its highest-scoring core domain. Higher education was provided by 18 institutions in 2025, including universities and professional higher education institutions. Foreign degree students numbered 3,879 in 2025/26, representing 8.2% of the student body. Current school changes include the extended learning obligation, the continuing language transition and the teacher career model introduced in 2026. |